Photovoltaic materials such as solar cells operate on the basis of the photovoltaic effect. In the case of photovoltaic materials including nanoparticles, it is known that incident light can produce multiple excitons within a nanoparticle. However, to take advantage of multiple excitons to produce increased device performance, it is necessary to enhance the photovoltaic effect in such materials by separating and extracting the charge resulting from the excitons. Unfortunately, known materials do not provide such an enhancement.